Northern China was under the dominance of the Mongol warlike nomad-civilization from c. 1215 onwards, and the whole country came under Mongol rule in 1279. During this new dynasty, the Yuan (Y\u00fcan), the Chinese themselves became despised in their own country. Lowest was the status of the inhabitants of the regions south of the Yangzi River, although the region had been both economically and culturally very important.<\/p>\n
The institution of imperial examinations for scholar-officials, so crucial for the administration and cultural life of the empire, was abolished. Thus the scholar officials could no longer participate in the country\u2019s affairs. In former times the Confucian literati formed the elite, but now they were regarded as one class lower than prostitutes and only a grade higher than beggars. The foundation of Chinese society was shaking.<\/p>\n
Many of the frustrated scholar-officials focused their energy on the arts. The theatrical styles shaped in the Song dynasty became extremely popular. Through the theatre one was able to explore matters common to all: the cruelty of the conquerors, the tragedies of the war, the separation of families or lovers etc. While reflecting the collective sentiments, theatre was able to serve as a form of passive resistance<\/p>\n
Censorship was, however, merciless. In order to avoid the death penalty, which was the result of any kind of direct criticism, the writers turned for their material to old stories from the country\u2019s long history or to popular legends and to early, simple plays. The underlying message was, however, clear to their audiences.<\/p>\n
The scholar-writers of the Yuan dynasty created high-quality dramatic literature, which is still regarded as classic and is still performed in various later styles. They are shorter than the earlier zaju<\/i> plays. They usually consist of four acts and sometimes kinds of \u201cprologues\u201d or \u201cinterludes\u201d, which, however, form an integral part of the whole. More role categories were employed by the Yuan dramas than the earlier zaju<\/i> and nanxi<\/i> traditions. They include<\/p>\nMo<\/i>, or male characters<\/h3>\n
zhengmo (cheng-mo)<\/i>, singing male lead
\nfumo (fu-mo)<\/i>, supporting male character<\/p>\n
xiaomo (hsiao-mo)<\/i>, young man
\nchongmo (ch\u2019hung-mo)<\/i>, a kind of narrator or a master of ceremonies<\/p>\nDan (tan)<\/i>, or female roles<\/h3>\n
zhengdan (cheng-tan)<\/i>, singing female lead
\nfudan, waidan, tiedan (fu-tan, wai-tan, ti\u2019eh-tan)<\/i>, supporting female characters
\nlaodan (lao-tan)<\/i>, old female character
\nxiaodan (hsiao-tan)<\/i>, young woman
\nhuadan (hua-tan)<\/i>, coquette female character
\nchadan (ch\u2019a-tan)<\/i>, intriguer<\/p>\nOthers<\/h3>\n
jing (ching)<\/i>, evil or comic characters
\nza (tsa)<\/i>, supporting minor characters, such as servants, crooks or children<\/p>\n\n\t\t